Part of Speech

 The Part of Speech Is Determined by the Word's Function. There are nine parts of speech :

• (1) Adjective
• (2) Adverb
• (3) Conjunction
• (4) Determiner
• (5) Interjection
• (6) Noun
• (7) Preposition
• (8) Pronoun
• (9) Verb

(1) Adjective

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. Here are some examples of adjectives:

red, happy, enormous

Examples of adjectives in sentences:

Ask the boy in the red jumper.

(The adjective "red" modifies the noun "jumper.")

I live in a happy place.

(The adjective "happy" modifies the noun "place.")

I caught a fish this morning! I mean an enormous one.

(The adjective "enormous" modifies the pronoun "one.")

(2) Adverb

An adverb modifies a verb. Here are some examples of adverbs:

happily, loosely, often

Examples of adverbs in sentences:

They skipped happily to the counter.

(The adverb "happily" modifies the verb "skipped.")

Tie the knot loosely so they can escape.

(The adverb "loosely" modifies the verb "tie.")

I often walk to work.

(The adverb "often" modifies the verb "walk.")

Be aware that adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs.

It is an intriguingly magic setting.

(The adverb "intriguingly" modifies the adjective "magic.")

He plays the piano extremely well.

(The adverb "extremely" modifies the adverb "well.")

(3) Conjunction

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. Here are some examples of conjunctions:

and, or, but

Examples of conjunctions in sentences:

it is a large and important city.

(The conjunction "and" joins the words "large" and "important," which are both adjectives.)

Shall we run to the hills or hide in the bushes?

(The conjunction "or" joins the phrases "run to the hills" and "hide in the bushes.")

I know you are lying, but I cannot prove it.

(The conjunction "but" joins the clauses "I know you are lying" and "I cannot prove it.")

(4) Determiner

A determiner specifies a noun or a pronoun or states quantity. Here are some examples of determiners:

my, those, two, many

Examples of determiners in sentences:

My dog is fine with those cats.

(The determiner "my" modifies the noun "dog" to specify it. The determiner "those" modifies the noun "cats" to specify them.)

There are two dogs but many cats.

(The determiner "two" modifies the noun "dogs" to state the quantity, and the determiner "many" modifies the noun "cats" to state the quantity.)

(5) Interjection

An interjection expresses emotion. Here are some examples of interjections:

ouch, oops, eek

Examples of interjections in sentences:

Ouch, that hurt.

(The interjection "ouch" expresses pain.)

Oops, it's broken.

(The interjection "oops" expresses dismay.)

Eek! A mouse just ran past my foot!

(The interjection "eek" expresses panic.)

(6) Noun

A noun names a person, place, or thing. Here are some examples of nouns:

leader, town, apple

Examples of nouns in sentences:

Take me to your leader.

(The noun "leader" names a person.)

I will see you in town later.

(The noun "town" names a place.)

An apple fell on his head.

(The nouns "apple" and "head" name things.)

All nouns are classified as either a common noun (i.e., the words we use like "man," "city," "river") or a proper noun (i.e., the personal names or titles we use like "Peter," "Boston," "The Mississippi").

Nouns are further classified depending on what they name (e.g., something abstract like "bravery" or something concrete like "mud"), their structure (e.g., one word like "pool" or two words like "whirlpool"), or a peculiarity about their grammar (e.g., "oxygen" does not have plural form).

(7) Preposition

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence. Here are some examples of prepositions:

in, near, on, with

Examples of prepositions in sentences:

Sarah is hiding in the box.

(The preposition "in" shows the relationship between "hiding" and "box.")

I live near the train station.

(The preposition "near" shows the relationship between "live" and "train station.")

Put your hands on your head.

(The preposition "on" shows the relationship between "hands" and "head.")

She yelled with enthusiasm.

(The preposition "with" shows the relationship between "yelled" and "enthusiasm.")

(8) Pronoun

A pronoun replaces a noun (or a noun phrase). Here are some examples of pronouns:

she, we, they, that

Examples of pronouns in sentences:

Joanne is smart. She is also funny.

(The pronoun "she" replaces the noun "Joanne.")

Our team has studied the evidence. We know the truth.

(The pronoun "we" replaces the noun phrase "our team.")

Jack and Jill went up the hill, but they never returned.

(The pronoun "they" replaces "Jack and Jill.")

That is clever!

(The pronoun "that" replaces the noun that names whatever the speaker is pointing at, a machine perhaps.)

(9) Verb

A verb identifies an action or state of being. Here are some examples of verbs:

work, be, write, exist

Examples of verbs in sentences:

Tony works down the pit now. He was unemployed.

(The verb "works" expresses an action. The verb "was" expresses a state of being.)

I will write a song for you.

(The verb "write" expresses an action.)

I think aliens exist.

(The verb "think" expresses an action (a mental action in this case). The verb "exist" expresses a state of being.)

Phrasal Verbs

Here is a mini-lesson about phrasal verbs.

​

1.  Throw on = quickly put on usually clothes

· And then, they throw their coats on and walk out the door!

2.  Play on = exploit someone's feelings or weak points in an unfair way

· Their latest adverts play on your emotions.

3.  Single out = choose someone from a group for special treatment, often                 criticism or praise

· The teacher would always single her out for her fantastic projects.

​

Which phrasal verb do we need?

​

1. There is nothing which _________ (chooses from a group for special treatment /       him).

2. A: Are you ready? B: I'll just _________ (quickly put on / some clothes).

3. They _________ (exploit in an unfair way / your feelings) to make money.

4.  Gun for = try hard to get something (often used in continuous tenses)

        · All the runners are gunning for first place in the race.

5. Hinge-on = depend entirely on something

        · A company's success can hinge on good marketing.

6.  Hunt down = find with a long search

        · Finally, I managed to hunt my keys down.

​

Which phrasal verb do we need?

​

1. In the end, the police managed to _________ (find with a long search / the              criminal).

2. Our arrival time will __________ (depend completely on / the plane timetable).

3. I'm __________ (trying hard to get / a promotion at work).

Adjective or Participle

 Participles can also act as adjectives. In this case, they modify nouns. Sometimes participles are  used as adjectives after be or other copular verbs. In this case, they complete the predicate.

When participles help to form continuous and perfect tenses, they act as participles.

Adjective Phrase

 A word group that has an adjective as its head is called an adjective phrase. Note that the adjective in this phrase may be accompanied by other words such as determiners, modifiers etc.

Adjective phrases can go before a noun (attributive position). They can also go after a linking verb like be (predicative position).

• He was wearing a dark brown suit. (Here the adjective phrase ‘a dark brown’ modifies the noun suit.)
• The fish tasted awfully funny. (Here the adjective phrase ‘awfully funny’ says something about the fish. It goes after the copular or linking verb tasted.

A copular verb does not take an object and it cannot be modified by an adverb. The word or phrase that follows a copular verb typically says something about the subject of the sentence.

• The fish tasted awful. (NOT The fish tasted awfully.)

Here the adjective awful says something about the fish. It doesn’t modify the verb tasted.

Note that the adjective in an adjective phrase may be modified by an adverb. When it is modified by an adverb, the adverb goes before the adjective. The adjective may also be modified by other determiners like articles, possessives and demonstratives.

Consider the phrase ‘my cute little daughter’

Here the adjective phrase ‘my cute little’ consists of a possessive (my) and two adjectives (cute and little).

Sometimes the idea expressed by an adjective can also be expressed using a noun phrase. Consider the examples given below.

• Brutus is an honorable man. (Here the adjective honorable modifies the noun man.)

The same idea can be expressed using the phrase: a man of honor

• Brutus is a man of honor.

Another example is given below.

• Churchill was an eminent man. (Here the adjective eminent modifies the noun man.)
• Churchill was a man of eminence. (Here the noun phrase ‘a man of eminence’ means the same as the phrase ‘an eminent man’.)

Subjunctive - Practice

Subjunctive - Wishes

 The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, are used in the subordinate clauses of sentences which use the verb to wish in the main clause. In the following examples, the verb to wish is printed in bold type, and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are underlined.

e.g. He wishes that he were rich.
They wish that they had studied harder when they were young.
She wishes that you would come to the meeting tomorrow.

It should be noted that the word that can be omitted from a sentence which uses the verb to wish in the main clause.
e.g. He wishes he were rich.
They wish they had studied harder when they were young.
She wishes you would come to the meeting tomorrow.

The form of the verb used in the subordinate clause of a wish is independent of the tense of the verb in the main clause. As explained below, the form of the verb used in the subordinate clause of a wish is determined by whether the time of the action referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than, the same as, or later than the time of the action referred to in the main clause.

a. An earlier time

When the subordinate clause refers to an earlier time than the main clause, the Past Perfect Subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause. In the following examples, the verbs in the Past Perfect Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. We wished he had spoken to us.
I wish you had called earlier.
They will wish they had listened to us sooner.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive may be used instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive. In the following example, the verb in the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive is underlined.
e.g. She wishes she had been staying with us last week.

In each of these examples, the use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive or the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause refers to an earlier time than the main clause.

b. The same time

When the subordinate clause refers to the same time as the main clause, the Simple Past Subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Past Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. When she was at the party, she wished she were at home.
Now that he is in China, he wishes he understood Chinese.
When we begin the trip, they will wish they were with us.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Past Continuous Subjunctive may be used instead of the Simple Past Subjunctive. In the following example, the verb in the Past Continuous Subjunctive is underlined.
e.g. They wish they were traveling now.

In each of these examples, the use of the Simple Past Subjunctive or the Past Continuous Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause refers to the same time as the main clause.

c. A later time

When the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is usually used in the subordinate clause. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple conjugation with would are underlined.
e.g. You wished she would arrive the next day.
I wish she would change her mind.
He will wish we would join him the following week.

In each of these examples, the use of the Simple conjugation with would indicates that the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause.

d. Summary

The following table summarizes the verb forms most often used in the subordinate clauses of sentences expressing wishes.

Time Referred to in Subordinate Clause
Compared to Time Referred to in Main Clause	Form of Verb Used in Subordinate Clause
Earlier	Past Perfect Subjunctive or
	Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive
	e.g. I wish it had snowed yesterday.
Same	Simple Past Subjunctive or
	Past Continuous Subjunctive
	e.g. I wish it were snowing now.
Later	Simple conjugation with would
	e.g. I wish it would snow tomorrow.

e. Use of the auxiliary Could in expressing wishes

It should be noted that the modal auxiliary could, which will be discussed further in the next chapter, can also be used in the subordinate clause of a sentence expressing a wish. The auxiliary could forms conjugations in the same way as the auxiliary would.
e.g. I wish I could help you tomorrow.
I wish I could help you now.

As illustrated in the preceding examples, the Simple conjugation with could may be used when the time referred to in the subordinate clause is later than, or the same as, the time referred to in the main clause.

As illustrated in the following example, the Perfect conjugation with could may be used when the time referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than the time referred to in the main clause.
e.g. I wish I could have helped you yesterday.

Subjunctive : Uses & Formation

Uses

 In modern English, the Simple Present Subjunctive is most commonly used in formal commands and requests. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Present Subjunctive are underlined.

e.g. They demand that he submit a report.
We request that you be here tomorrow.

The Simple Present Subjunctive is also still used in a few traditional expressions.
e.g. Long live the King!

The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, are used in expressing wishes.
e.g. I wish you were here.
I wish I had known that.
I wish the rain would stop.

The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, can also be used in order to indicate that conditions being expressed are false or improbable.
e.g. If I were rich, I would travel around the world.
If he had been here, he would have been glad to see you.

In the first example, the use of the Simple Past Subjunctive were and the Simple conjugation with would indicates that the condition expressed in the clause If I were rich is false or improbable. In the second example, the use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive had been, and the Perfect conjugation with would, indicates that the condition expressed in the clause If he had been here is false.

Formation

The English past and present tenses discussed in previous chapters are in what is usually referred to as the Indicative Mood. Each of the past and present tenses in the Indicative Mood has a corresponding tense in the Subjunctive Mood.

In modern English, most verb tenses in the Subjunctive Mood are similar or identical to the corresponding tenses in the Indicative Mood. It should be noted that verbs in the Subjunctive Mood do not modify, but have the same form regardless of the subject.

The Simple Present Subjunctive and Simple Past Subjunctive of the verb to be are shown below. The Indicative forms are also given, for purposes of comparison. The Subjunctive forms which differ from the corresponding Indicative forms are shown in bold type.

The simple indicative and subjunctive tenses of the verb To BeSimple Present

Indicative	Subjunctive
I am	I be
you are	you be
he is	he be
she is	she be
it is	it be
we are	we be
they are	they be

Simple Past

Indicative	Subjunctive
I was	I were
you were	you were
he was	he were
she was	she were
it was	it were
we were	we were
they were	they were

For any verb, the Simple Present Subjunctive is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb.

For any verb except the verb to be, the Simple Past Subjunctive is identical to the Simple Past Indicative.

For all of the past and present tenses conjugated with auxiliaries, the Subjunctive tenses are formed in the same way as the Indicative tenses, except that the Subjunctive of the auxiliaries is used.

Using the example of the verb to work, the following table compares the tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive Moods. The Subjunctive forms which differ from the corresponding Indicative forms are printed in bold type.

The indicative and subjunctive tenses of the verb To WorkSimple Present

Indicative	Subjunctive
I work	I work
you work	you work
he works	he work
she works	she work
it works	it work
we work	we work
they work	they work

Present Continuous

Indicative	Subjunctive
I am working	I be working
you are working	you be working
he is working	he be working
she is working	she be working
it is working	it be working
we are working	we be working
they are working	they be working

Present Perfect

Indicative	Subjunctive
I have worked	I have worked
you have worked	you have worked
he has worked	he have worked
she has worked	she have worked
it has worked	it have worked
we have worked	we have worked
they have worked	they have worked

Present Perfect Continuous

Indicative	Subjunctive
I have been working	I have been working
you have been working	you have been working
he has been working	he have been working
she has been working	she have been working
it has been working	it have been working
we have been working	we have been working
they have been working	they have been working

Simple Past

Indicative	Subjunctive
I worked	I worked
you worked	you worked
he worked	he worked
she worked	she worked
it worked	it worked
we worked	we worked
they worked	they worked

Past Continuous

Indicative	Subjunctive
I was working	I were working
you were working	you were working
he was working	he were working
she was working	she were working
it was working	it were working
we were working	we were working
they were working	they were working

Past Perfect

Indicative	Subjunctive
I had worked	I had worked
you had worked	you had worked
he had worked	he had worked
she had worked	she had worked
it had worked	it had worked
we had worked	we had worked
they had worked	they had worked

Past Perfect Continuous

Indicative	Subjunctive
I had been working	I had been working
you had been working	you had been working
he had been working	he had been working
she had been working	she had been working
it had been working	it had been working
we had been working	we had been working
they had been working	they had been working

The following table summarizes the formation of the English Subjunctive tenses:

Tense	Auxiliary	Verb Form
Simple Present	do	bare infinitive
Present Continuous	be	present participle
Present Perfect	have	past participle
Present Perfect Continuous	have been	present participle
Simple Past	did	bare infinitive
Past Continuous	were	present participle
Past Perfect	had	past participle
Past Perfect Continuous	had been	present participle

Formal Command and Request

The Simple Present Subjunctive was once more extensively used than it is today. In modern American English, the Simple Present Subjunctive is still used in clauses beginning with the word that which express formal commands or requests. In the following examples, the word that is printed in bold type, and the verbs in the Simple Present Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. They requested that she arrive early.
It is important that they be present at the meeting.
The demand that he provide identification will create a delay.The main clauses of the preceding examples are they requested, it is important and the demand will create a delay. In the first example, the verb requested is in the Simple Past; in the second example, the verb is is in the Simple Present; and in the third example, the verb will create is in the Simple Future.

As illustrated in these examples, the use of the Simple Present Subjunctive in the subordinate clause of a formal command or request is independent of the tense of the verb in the main clause.

The Simple Present Subjunctive is more commonly used in formal English than in informal English. For instance, the sentence “He advises that you not be late,” is an example of formal English. In informal English, the same idea would probably be expressed by the sentence “He advises you not to be late,” in which the infinitive is used, rather than a clause requiring the Simple Present Subjunctive.